Indus River Valley

2025-09-30

indus river and tributaries

• intensive agriculture, irrigation systems
• Lentils, wheat barley, dates, cotton
• many domesticated animals:
  • zebu cattle
  • sheep
  • goats
• extensive trade
• large cities:
  • Mohenjo-Daro
  • Harappa
  • Dholavira
• numerous towns(over 80) of two basic sizes, and ~15,000 villages
• cities and towns on a grid system
• little evidence of social classes
• little evidence of warfare
• no evidence of palaces, temples, or governing institutions, but
• extensive standardization
  • uniform street widths
  • uniform bricks
  • standardized tools, pots, and other artifacts
  • this implies a considerable degree of regulation
• extensive hydrolic engineering:
  • public baths in Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira
  • reservoirs in Dholavira
  • toilets with running water and sewers

The Aryans, Brahmanism, and Hinduism

The Aryans

• indo-europeans invaders - entered india
• spoke Sanskrit
• independent, but closely related tribes headed by rajas
• settled in northern india, especially on plains surrounding the Ganges river
• time period known as Vedic Epoch(or Age), due to the Vedas
• the Vedas are a collection of myths, hymns, ritual texts, and information about the Aryans
• oldest of the Vedas is the Rigveda
• it provides a lot of information about Aryan society

Aryan social structure

• Brahmins - priests
• Kshatrijas - nobles/warriors
• Vaishyas - common folk: farmers, herders, craftsmen
• Shudras - enslaved natives
  • Pariahs - outcasts

Brahmanism

• polytheistic
  • agni - a fire god
  • Indra - a storm god
• Ritualistic
  • strict ceremonies
  • enhanced authority of priests
• little moral content
• became increasingly sterile - priests couldn't adress the people's spiritual needs

Hinduism

The Upanishads

written text laid out philosophical texts foundation of Hinduism

• Philosophical ideas
  • Brahman: Brahman is the world, the soul, or simply god
    • reality itself
    • source and destination of life
  • Atman: the individual soul
    • a peice of Brahman
  • Maya: material world
    • it is an illusion
    • it is temporary
    • the source of pain and suffering
  • Moksha: the end of the cycle of rebirth (Samsara)
    • union if Atman with Brahman
  • Reincarnation
    • transmigration of the soul
    • Atman enters another form following death
  • Karma: deeds
    • universal justice
    • no judgment
    • actions determine your future
• no single creed, obligation, leader, or form of practice
• good/bad is tied to your dharma
• dharma is "caste obligation"

Castes

• the Laws of Manu reflect the values of class in early Indo-Aryan-Hindu society
• rigid distinctions were established between classes
• over time, classes began dividing into castes on the basis of occupation
• castes became a part of hindu beliefs regarding reincarnation
• castes can be seen as a sign of progression toward Moksha

yoga paths

• jnana yoga
  • the path to god through scriptures
• karma yoga
  • the path to god through actions
• raja yoga
  • the path to god through meditation and psychological exercises
• bhakti yoga
  • the path to god through love
  • devotion to a single god
  • the most popular form of Hinduism

Hindu trinity

• Brahma - the creator
• Shiva - the destroyer
• Vishnu - the preserver

other gods

• ganesha - remover of obstacles
• saraswati - education, learning, arts
• kali - fierce goddess who drives away evil
• lakshmi - good fortune

Siddhartha Gautama

• born into Kshatrija class
• carriage rides revealed pain, misery, illness, and death
• renounced his life, and sought answers as an ascetic
• he nearly starved, but then he experienced an enlightenment, and became the Buddha
• began preaching his four noble truths
  • pain
  • desire - the cause of pain
  • ending pain - to end desire
  • the noble eightfold path
    • life without:
    • desire
    • envy
    • pursuit of material and physical things
    • power
    • worldly happiness
• one way of life
• no classism
• enlightenment is your own responsibility
• Buddha discarded Hindu gods
• Buddha discarded castes
• kept some Hindu beliefs
  • karma
  • reincarnation
  • spiritual reality
• after his death, Buddha would be portrayed as a gpd
• Mahayana Buddhism developed into hundreds of regional variations
• Theravada Buddhism developed into a stricter form of Buddhism that claims to be closer to Buddha's teachings
• both spread within and outside of india

Mauryan dynasty

• Chandragupta Maurya seized power in the northern indian kingdom of Magadha

• its peak was under Ashoka

• Ashoka was a powerful ruler, who became disillusioned when his army seized Kalinga and slaughtered its inhabitants

• following this, he converted to Buddhism

• Buddhism spread rapidly through india

• Buddhism thrived in india until the 4th century CE

• Hindu revival movement sparked by the Guptas

• the arrival of Islam helped to drive out Buddhism

Gupta dynasty

• the Guptas were patrons of the arts, Hindu temples and literature, and learning
• Brahmins aggressively pushed Hinduism and taught Buddha as a reincarnation of Vishnu
• steel, iron, copper, and textile manufacturing boomed during this time.
• sacred literature
• Hindu temple construction
• Kalidasa was a famous writer from this period
• various scientific advancements
• various mathematical advancements including 0, the radix, and hindu-arabic numerals